Factors Affecting Participation with Sustainability

Factors Affecting Participation with Sustainability Participation is an essential component of development and the degree of participation in development programs is a key determinant of success or failure. According to Bagherian et al. (2009) the activites and factors which contribute with success of particiption still unkown and remind a mystery. But some researchers and scholars studied peoples participation and affecting factors in development projects they found some key factors which affect people’s participation. There are a variety of factors affecting local participation in development programmes and projects such as economic, political, legislative, administrative, socio-cultural, and geographical factors. Furthermore, isolation and scattered habitat of the poor people; work load, especially for women, weak health condition, low level of education and exposure to non local information, weak leaders and lack of know-how to move in this direction in order to promote their interests. (Heck, 2003;Cohen Uphoff, 1980; UNDP , 2007; Oakley, 1991). Heck (2003) added some factors and constraints of implementing and support agencies: centralized planning, decision making and implementation, lack of skilled staff to promote participation and pressure from the side of implementing institution and supporting organizations to produce visible results quickly. Economic factors: Mohammad (2010) asserts that economic factors extremely affects peoples participation, which they are bound to live and adjusted. He added that socially poor, minorities and underprivileged communities rarely asked for participation in government lead programs and projects. For the best result, it could be crucial to consider and engage individuals and minorities from different levels in the leadership structure of the community. As Wall et al. (2005) cited that â€Å"Leaders must make every effort to recruit and involve people of both racial and ethnic diversity and with lower socioeconomic status as their interests and concerns should not be ignored† (155). Political factors: Political factors affect peoples participation in different ways. One of the main causes of apathetic situation of people participation in developing countries is political obstacle. Samad (2002) explained that beside of the socioeconomic stance, political background of stakeholders has been an influential factor in the form of participation consequence. He added that those stakeholders, who are politically, socially and economically dominate, for their own interest may frustrate the participation of others (cited in Mohammad, 2010). Heck (2003) stated that in number of countries the rural and urban elites influence the political and administrative structures to turn the policies in their favor. Socio-cultural factors: In some communities, culture directly affects people participation in development projects. Afghan community is one of them, which culture is a big challenge for minorities especially women’ participation. Likewise, Cohen and Uphoff (1980) hinted in their compressive model of people’s participation in rural development that culture is one of three big challenges which affect people’s participation in development initiatives. Beyond all these factors in some cases, people do not want to participate in development projects. For more effective participation some practical steps are very important which include: demanded-led idea for project or program, ensuring that the design is thought of as an investment in a successful outcome and thus given adequate time and other resources, the design incorporates specific activities and resources needed to implement participatory strategies, distinctly specifying the target group who and which groups to be participated and who will benefit, defining the type and level of participation to be achieved and selecting skilled team in participatory approaches (AusAID, 2010). Brahmi and Thakur (2011) undertook a study to find socio-economicfactors which affecting peoples participation in the Hariyali project in Himachal Pardesh, India. For study data were collected from 71 people who were involved in the project and 428 farmers through survey. The study findings showed total 22 factors noticed by respondents which affects people’s participation from these 22 factors 18 were socio-economic factors. The key factors were: lack of awareness about programmes, poor economic conditions, illiteracy, lack of faith in government programmes, village politics, subsidy culture, lack of exposure visits, low interest in money contribution, lack of demonstration and transparency. About 90 percent of the respondents perceived that lack of awareness (i.e. Knowledge of project concepts, objectives and their benefits, guidelines and responsibilities of the user group) were the most challenging factors. The study also revealed some program related factors such as lack of entry point activities, lack of flexibility in expenditure according to field conditions, variation in wage payments and lack of provision of advance payments. Similarly, Nxumalo and Oladele (2013) examined factors affecting farmers’ participation in agricultural program in Zululand district, South Africa. Three municipalities and 90 people were randomly selected. Data were collected through structured questionnaire, frequency count, percentages and the probit regression model were used for analysis. The study showed that farmers were inclined to participation, but luck of fund, unavailability of land, limited resources were major factors for participation. Bagherian et al. (2009) conducted a study to trace the factors which influencing local people’s participation in Watershed Management Programs (WMP) in Iran. Two hundred respondents were questioned through personal interview, correlation and multiple regression were employed for data analyses. The finding demonstrated that the level of people participation was moderate. Regression findings showed five factors had impact on the level of participation of people in this program. These factors were: level of people’s satisfaction of prior programs, people’s attitude toward WMP, people’s knowledge of WMP, their monthly income from alternative occupation and their expectations of WMP. Despite of many problems in Afghanistan two main obstacles have been encountered by National Solidarity Program (NSP) which highly effects people’s participation. First, security problems, due to ongoing conflict in some parts of the country, it has been difficult to contract facilitating people’s participation in such areas has been in danger. This has resulted in a slow pace of programme implementation. Second, local governments and elite of communities, in some regions have interfered in development projects which have brought obstacles for people’s participation (NSP, 2010). Dufour and Antezar (2003) carried out a research to analyze participation and consultation of affected populationin Nahrin district, Baghlan, Afghanistan. Data were collected from the local population, Afghan aid workers, international aid workers and the Afghan interim authorities. For data collection different tools were used such as interview with formal and informal focus groups, visits, participation in meetings, and review of secondary sources. The study showed some contextual factors, for instance security, geography, social characteristics, cultural factors and interference of local power holders. The key factors which affect sustainability have been grouped under nine main headings, namely: partner government and donor policies, local participation and ownership, management and organization, finance, awareness and training, technology, socio-culture, environment and external political and economical factors (AusAID, 2000). Sahee foundation[1](2008) conducted a study to find sustainability of rural development projects in Swaziland. Fifty six rural development projects were surveyed correlation had been tested, used the Kruskal-Wallis test and the Kendall Rank correlation. The findings revealed that the project is not an effortless way to earn wealth with little effort and input. People awareness about their responsibilities, working of knowledgeable persons hand to hand with other members of the project for achieving the common aim likely lead projects to sustainability. Furthermore, the study showed that cooperation between implementing NGOs, beneficiaries and local authorities were mostly satisfactory or even good. Despite of these positive points achieving stable membership was one of the big difficulties in most of the projects. In most cases the membership shrank until a small core group remained. Some projects ended because NGOs had stopped visiting projects after completion due to lack of fund a nd the beneficiaries had no possibility to improve their skills and develop their project. [1] Sahee: Sustainability for Agriculture, Health, Education and Environment (2008)

Prototype

Prototype Theory Rosch (1976) has proposed an alternative to the view that concepts are com ¬posed from sets of features which necessarily and sufficiently define instances of a concept. Rosch proposes that concepts are best viewed as prototypes: a ‘bird’ is not best defined by reference to a set of features that refer to such matters as wings, warm-bloodedness, and egg-laying characteristics, but rather by reference to typical instances, so that a ‘prototypical bird’ is something more like a robin than it is like a toucan, penguin, ostrich, or even eagle.This is the theory of prototypes. As we saw in the preceding section, individuals do have ideas of typical instances of colors, and these ideas are remarkably similar among vari ¬ous cultural groups. Such similarity in views, however, is found not only in reference to birds and colors.A variety of experiments has shown that people do in fact classify quite consistently objects of various kinds according to what they regard as being typical instances; for example, (1) furniture, so that, whereas a chair is a typical item of furniture, an ashtray is not; (2) fruit, so that, whereas apples and plums are typical, coconuts and olives are not; and (3) clothing, so that, whereas coats and trousers are typical items, things like bracelets and purses are not (Clark and Clark, 1977, p. 64). The remarkably uniform behavior that people exhibit in such tasks cannot be accounted for by a theory which says that concepts are formed from sets of defining features. Such a theory fails to explain why some instances are consistently held to be more typical or central than others when all exhibit the same set of defining features. Hudson (1996, pp. 75-8) believes that prototype theory has much to offer sociolinguists.He believes it leads to an easier account of how people learn to use language, particularly linguistic concepts, from the kinds of instances they come across. He says (p. 77) that: a prot otype-based concept can be learned on the basis of a very small number of instances– perhaps a single one– and without any kind of formal definition, whereas a feature-based definition would be very much harder to learn since a much larger number of cases, plus a number of non-cases, would be needed before the learner could work out which features were necessary nd which were not. Moreover, such a view allows for a more flexible approach to understanding how people actually use language. In that usage certain concepts are necessarily ‘fuzzy,’ as the theory predicts they will be, but that very fuzziness allows speakers to use language creatively. According to Hudson, prototype theory may even be applied to the social situations in which speech occurs.He suggests that, when we hear a new lin ¬guistic item, we associate with it who typically seems to use it and what, appar ¬ently, is the typical occasion of its use. Again, we need very few instances †” even possibly just a single one — to be able to do this. Of course, if the particular instance is atypical and we fail to recognize this fact, we could be in for some discomfort at a later time when we treat it as typical. Prototype theory, then, offers us a possible way of looking not only at how concepts may be formed, i. . , at the cognitive dimensions of linguistic behavior but also at how we achieve our social competence in the use of language. We judge circumstances as being typically this or typically that, and we place people in the same way. We then tailor our language to fit, making it appropriate to the situation and the participants as we view these. (Wardhaugh, Ronald. 1998. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 3rd ed. Blackwell Publishers Ltd. pp. 232-233. )

Essay about Madonna Business Case Analysis - 634 Words

Madonna Business Case Analysis This business case analysis explores the theme of strategy by examining the career of Madonna, the world’s highest earning female entertainer, and one of the most business savvy women in the world . The case analysis identifies the impact that strategy can have on successful performance, and that it can be applied to both individuals as well as organizations. As we see in the example Madonna demonstrates that strategy is not about creating a detailed plan, but about establishing an overall direction that has clear goals, understands the competitive environment, appraises resources, is effectively implemented, and easily adaptable. Synopsis of the Case From Madonnas early days in her career, she has†¦show more content†¦The biggest issue standing in her way was how to obtain her success, and then be able to maintain it instead of fading away like many other celebrities do as they get older. Explanation of Relevant Concepts, Theories and Applications Derived from Course Materials Successful strategies are based on several common elements, such as: 1)Simple, consistent long-term goals 2)Profound understanding of the competitive environment, 3)Objective appraisal of resources, and 4)Effective implementation (Grant, 2010). As our case study shows, Madonna has had a firm grasp on these elements. Her long-term goal to be the greatest female performer is very simplistic and long term. Her understanding of the competitive environment is exceptional, throughout the years she understood exactly the direction that music was taking. In the 1980s she understood that dance clubs and DJs were the future and if she wanted to break into the industry she needed to start there. In the late 1980s and into the 1990s she utilized sex and seduction to keep in publics eye. By the late 2000s she understood that music was going away from the recorded format and the money to made was in live performances. Madonna has understood throughout the years that as the industry was constantly changing that she would need to as well to stay relevant. She has been successful at promoting her strengths, while shadowing her weaknesses. Madonna has developed her image throughout the years toShow MoreRelatedMadonna Case Analysis1334 Words   |  6 PagesMadonna Case Analysis Introduction The following case study covers the foundation of Madonna’s business success and her continued global popularity over the past 20 years. Madonna has influenced people all over the world. Her quest for Superstardom is evident in her wide range of endeavors such as her records, concerts, movies, books, and charity events. 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The Fight for Rights! - 884 Words

Women had no rights compared to a man. Women had to fight for the rights which led to a change in the United States which last till today. For women in 1920s, the fight to acquire rights was called the women’s suffrage movement which on how they have rights, have to fight against a dissident to get the 19th amendment and how the suffrage movement influences them today from the suffragist demands they acquired. With the arduous time women had trying to achieve the rights they demand they had to .Women suffragist made associations and paraded down the street to endeavor rights. Two associations were made up, the National Woman Suffrage Association and the American Women Suffrage Association. The National Women Suffrage Association is also†¦show more content†¦With the negative comments coming from dissidents of the suffrage movement, some did disbelieve a woman should acquire rights. There are arguments against the women’s suffrage were voiced out saying no women should try to be in politics, and have no privilege granted to her. The only job of a woman should be in the home. â€Å"She can do little good by gadding the streets and neglecting her children†(Sanford, J.B). Arguments would typically be toward how a woman should be home, cleaning and taking care of her children, and how men should be able to take care of women. Men were the ones running the government, if a woman tried to set in the whole structure men organized would be destroyed. They wouldn’t have to vote in order to receive the protection of a man. â€Å"Why, men have gone to war, endured every privation and death itself in defense of women. To man, woman is the dearest creature on earth, and there is no extreme to which he would not go for his mother or sister† (Sanford, J.B) With all these opposing viewpoint getting thrown at woman suffragist, they didn’t stop. 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